Looking Inside Young Minds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Looking Inside Young Minds - Essay Example Like 3000 other callers this year, Thelma has contacted an organisation known as YoungMinds. YoungMinds, a national charity, is committed to improving the mental health of babies, children, and young people. Though the hotline is their most visible form of outreach, they function in numerous capacities to help children, parents, and professionals in their goal of helping children. They operate a parent's information hotline, publish numerous pamphlets and leaflets, conduct research, and consult with policy makers and practitioners in the field of child advocacy. YoungMinds, a multi-faceted organisation, offers immediate crisis help as well as research, training, and professional consultation. These extraordinary features make YoungMinds one of the most comprehensive advocates for children available to the general public. To understand the complexity of YoungMinds, it's helpful to follow a single case from the initial contact through to resolution. During Thelma's initial call, the operator gathered information about the child, the living situation, and the problems that confronted the family. After recommending further contact, it was arranged to have a professional call back at Thelma's convenience. ... In this case the professional was able to resolve the situation, but other scenarios may result in a client referral to another appropriate agency. In most cases, this highly effective approach will have given Thelma the tools she needs, as well as written material that will be of value to her Though Thelma's situation had to do with inappropriate violence, YoungMinds delves into numerous problems that children encounter. These issues include many diverse topics such as bullying, self-esteem, substance abuse, and behavioural issues. Issues as far reaching as gambling and eating disorders can be handled by the staff at YoungMinds. In addition, they expand their capabilities by offering training to other mental health professionals that deal with children's issues. Teachers, social workers, and foster caregivers can receive on-site training as well as written material that reflects the most up to date research and findings that affect children's mental health. The written material published by YoungMinds is aimed at children as well professionals and parents. Booklets written for children address issues such as depression, anger, sexual abuse, and coping with a dysfunctional family. They publish guides to advise parents that may be going through a divorce or experiencing other emotional problems. Their regular publication of YoungMinds Magazine covers news, analysis, activities of parliament, opinion, and upcoming events of interest. Many of these publications are available in electronic format at no charge, or may be ordered in print at a small fee. The nominal charge that YoungMinds receives for their printed material simply covers the cost of publication and reproducing. According to their 2005 annual report, eighty percent of their budget, which is less than

Importance And Role Of Economic Information Essay

Importance And Role Of Economic Information - Essay Example This mutual understanding is for the reason that businesses do not require to end up in price wars among competitors that ultimately eludes the profitability of the businesses. Owing to the interdependence and resulting price stickiness characteristic of industry, the demand for the product turns elastic in case the price is increased as compared to industry participants. If the competitors will attempt to increase the price as compare to other participants and this will result in losing revenue as demand will switch to other competitors. While in case of lowering price customers show inelasticity as all industry participants reduced price taking all firm to competitive positions again. Even in case of a high increase in marginal cost, the considerably low impact has to be transferred to customers. Since profit is maximized at a point where marginal cost equals marginal revenue therefore as long as marginal cost cuts marginal revenue in vertical position price will remain at P. Furth er, in case MC cuts marginal revenue vertically the price is retained same and a benefit is not passed on the customer.Further, competition is supported in other aspects such as branding, services accuracy etc, ABB has developed a competitive advantage with fast delivery services supported by online operations as compared to competitors in certain areas in order to retain differentiation from competitors. Other competitors based on respective capacity compete on aspects such as quality or differentiated range of products offered.  ... Further, incase MC cuts marginal revenue vertically the price is retained same and benefit is not passed on the customer. Further, competition is supported in other aspects such as branding, services accuracy etc, ABB has developed competitive advantage with fast delivery services supported by online operations as compare to competitors in certain areas in order to retain differentiation from competitors. Other competitors based on respective capacity compete on aspects such as quality or differentiated range of products offered. All these factors ensure increasing barrier to entry for new entrants while retaining competition. Therefore, securing industry from competition authorities to charge participants with accusation of cartelization; practice that is followed in oligopoly. Hence, being abreast not only with respective business position economically ABB has to remain updated as well as linked with the strategies of competitors to retains the competitive business positions. IMPOR TANCE AND ROLE OF FINANCIAL INFORMATION Financial information and respective understanding forms the back bone of the business. Importance of financial information is not only critical for top management that are concerned for decision making with respect overall business goals but at the same time financial information is critical for every department (Brealey, Myers, Allen, & Mohanty, 2007). For instance, marketing department’s investment in the advertisement and sales campaign are concerned to fetch sales that add considerably to profitability. Similarly, HR department also evaluates performance of departments, respective employees and comparison of efficiency of company employees with other

The Role of Non-State Actors Essay Example for Free

The Role of Non-State Actors Essay 5.1 Introduction It is generally recognized that the process of building a capable state requires the participation of all the vital forces of a nation. A capable state is one that has all the attributes of a modern, strong, responsible and responsive state, a state capable of effectively discharging its duties of delivering security, peace, prosperity and other pubic goods to its people. Although the state has traditionally been considered as the focal point of this process, other sectors, including non-state ones, have an important role to play, and the importance of this role has grown significantly over the past couple of decades as the limitations of the post-colonial state in providing for the needs of its people have been made all too clear. 1 It is thus important to identify these other actors and recognise those areas wherein they can contribute, and have indeed contributed, to the process, as well as to appreciate better their nature, their mode of intervention, the constraints hampering their action as well as to explore ways in which their participation can be rendered more fruitful and less problematic. But before we delve into the subject of non-state actors and their role in the creation of the capable state in Africa, it would be useful to look into just what the capable state is and means, and what it has meant for the African continent since the advent of independence half a century ago. 5.2 Definitional Issues 5.2.1 Overview The capable state may be defined as one that effectively fulfils its obligations to its constituents by providing and safeguarding a range of goods, both tangible and intangible,2 that assure its people of a secure public space wherein they can live and love, produce and reproduce, and pursue the enjoyment of the fruits of their labour and love. Such a state will have attributes such as territorial integrity, public order and safety under the rule of law; ample political space for individual and group self-realisation; and socio-economic justice and equity that minimise conflict and foster intra-national peace and harmony. It is the absence of these attributes within states that creates what have come to be known as â€Å"failed†, â€Å"failing† or â€Å"dysfunctional† states, whose common denominator are varying degrees of precariousness. In these terms, the African state that came into being upon decolonisation had its work cut out. From centuries of successive forms of extreme exploitation, oppression and brutalisation, African nations found themselves confronted with the daunting task of, on the one hand, putting in place governance systems that would ensure the survival of the nation-state that was essentially an artificial creation of the colonial regime, cobbled up from a multitude of disparate and often mutually hostile ethnic entities and, on the other, assure a minimum of livelihood for the people by delivering education, health and other social services, securing good prices for agricultural produce, providing jobs through mining and Mabogunje, A.L. Institutional Radical isation, the state and the development process in Africa. Development Policy Centre, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2000. 2 Anyang’ Nyong’o, Governance, Poverty and Sustainable Development in Africa, in The Quest for Equity in Access to Health and Development, Tropical Institute of Community Health and Development in Kenya. Industrialisation, and generally taking care of the nation, including providing welfare for those who could not fend for themselves. Herculean as these tasks were the first crop of African leaders assumed them with gusto. In fact it was the leaders who enthusiastically promoted these expectations, either because they needed seductive promises to make their peoples rally to the anti-colonial banner, or because they genuinely believed that once the colonialists were out of the way all was possible. Mkandawire3 sheds a harsh light on this â€Å"central preoccupation† with â€Å"development†. â€Å"African leaders have always been aware of the need for some nationalist-cum-developmentalist ideology for both national building and development†¦ The quest for an ideology to guide the development process inspired African leaders to propound their own idiosyncratic and often incoherent ‘ideologies’ to ‘rally the masses’ for national unity and dev elopment. If such ideologies are still absent it is definitely not for lack of trying.† Thus, it was made possible for people to expect that the state would do everything for them, in this way fostering the concept of l’Etatprovidence, the provider State. Some African states did indeed attempt, with varying degrees of success, to deliver on some of their promises, but it did not take long for most of these attempts to prove Sisyphean, rolled back by a number of factors, including, but not limited to, the following: a) Poor governance and managerial practices; b) Over-centralisation of power in the hands of a small group, or of one individual; c) Emergence of authoritarian/dictatorial/military regimes; d) Failure/reluctance to devolve power and responsibilities to local authorities; e) State corruption; f) Ethnic bias, nepotism, exclusion of whole sections of populations; g) Deterioration of terms trade on the world market; h) Unsustainable levels of state intervention in delivering social services; i) A crippling dependency syndrome on the part of populations hea vily reliant on government handouts, and on the part of governments dangerously dependent on donor handouts.4 By the end of the 1980s, it had become clear that the various development strategies different African countries had followed had not led to the desired outcomes. Despite the earlier promise of the 1960s, and the modest but positive growth figures of the 1970s, the 1980s came to be known as the ‘lost decade’, a grim epitaph epitomizing the shattered dreams of a whole continent, a reality from which African countries, having lost their initial elegance, have not fully emerged to this day. The World Bank blamed this inability to deliver development on â€Å"a strategy (that) was misconceived† in the sense that in their hurry to modernize, African governments were wont to copy rather than adapt Western development models, with the result that they found themselves with â€Å"poorly designed public investment in industry; too little attention to peasant agriculture; too much intervention in areas where the state lacked managerial, technical and entrepreneurial skills; and too little efforts to foster grassroots development.† This top down approach, according to the World Bank, â€Å"demotivated ordinary people, whose en ergies needed to be mobilized in the development effort.† It has been rather a case of ‘double jeopardy’ in the sense that the State that promised to deliver economic development – the ‘developmental State’ – also took away political and individual rights, constricting the political space in which citizens could enjoy full political participation, the argument being that incessant political bickering and rivalry would sap the developmental potential and undermine the nation building project. In the end, the African State, caught up in its ‘developmentalist’ quest, delivered neither economic development nor democratic governance6. The State became more ‘commandist,’ more intolerant of contrary ideas from its citizens, less reluctant to devolve power to local entities, more given to the use of force as a solution to political issues, and gradually descended into the mire of autocratic rule, the more egregious of which were military dictatorships and/or, later, rule by warlords and their militias. Faced with this stark reality, it became imperative to rethink governance with a view to finding alternative ways of confronting the development challenges of our peoples. At this same time, towards the end of Africa’s ‘lost decade’, momentous events were taking place in the world that were destined to usher in a major paradigmatic shift in world political relations. The end of the ‘Cold War’ was unfolding even as efforts were being made to see African countries ‘democratise’ and the discourse of that process threw to the fore a hitherto little heeded breed of protagonists, variously known as civil society, NGOs or non state actors. In Eastern Europe, some of these organisations played a central role in bringing about the fall of the Communist regimes, such as was evidenced, especially, by the Polish experience with the workers, union-based Solidarnos, as well as other civil society movements in Romania, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslov akia and the Soviet Union itself. Although there is little evidence to suggest that these movements sustained their role in the new, post-Communist governance systems –except that a trade union leader took over the State in Poland, and a poet in the Czech Republic – their importance had been recognized and stood ready to be deployed elsewhere. Africa, just like Eastern Europe, was emerging from a long period of negative development, and, as such, it was thought, what had worked in the former Communist regimes might work in African countries. As we shall see later, this would have a bearing on the way many of these non state actors, whether packaged as Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) or simply Non State Actors (NSAs), would be viewed in many African countries, which would also, to a large extent, inform their effectiveness on the ground.

Consumer Shopping Decisions and Behaviour

Consumer Shopping Decisions and Behaviour Literature Review Introduction Satisfaction of consumer needs and wants is the definitive goal for triumph in business. Hence, an effectual marketing strategy must spotlight on serving consumers/customers better than the competitors. The marketing manager should be interested in revealing the complexities of an individual buyer, the dynamics of consumer behavior and should also try to understand consumers individual differences so that he/she can segment the total market in terms of those differences Nisel (2001). Buyer decision making should be carefully studied by organizations and marketing managers to have a full understanding of how buyers obtain information, how they form their beliefs, and what specific product-choice criteria are sued by customers. Specific products/services can then be cultivated that will fulfill the appropriate requirements of these groups. Therefore, finding the motives that lead to differences in consumers decision-making processes is a critical factor for a company in accomplishing i ts marketing objectives in order to satisfy its customers Nisel (2001). Differences in consumers decision-making processes can aid the managers in classifying individuals into meaningful homogeneous subgroups. Olson Peter, 1994 defined consumer behaviour as â€Å"the dynamic interaction of affect and cognition, behaviour and environmental events by which human beings conduct the exchange aspects of their lives.† Every organization is interested in consumer behaviour for the sake of strategizing and streamlining their marketing mix to meeting the needs of their target market. Business entities have special interest in consumer behaviour for the reason that they can develop marketing strategies to induce consumers to purchase their products based on consumer research and analysis. For a company’s marketing strategy to hit the success mark, it will largely depend on how well the strategy is tailor measured to buyers needs and wants and how these buyers react to the strategy. Companies can find out what satisfies their customers by mandating their marketers to examine the main influences on what, where, when and how customers buy goods and services Dibb et al (2001). When these factors are well understood, companies through their  marketers can better be able to predict how consumers will respond to the marketing strategies of the firm. In the null shell, the information gathered through the market research and analysis will position the firm to compete more effectively in the marketplace, afford it will greater market share and better customer service delivery which will lead to customer satisfaction. This chapter which looks at the literature review will primarily center on why buyers behave the way they behave, their purchase decision process, the influencers of their decision, gathering knowledge for purchase decision, effective segmentation by supermarket operators, how to cultivate a good behaviour for shoppers, shopping convenience among other things. This is an attempt to develop a framework for the study buyer behaviour as a determinant for purchase. Shopping Motivation Shopping has become a part of everyday living for most people both home and abroad. Regardless of the increase of various home delivery shopping services, shopping for most reasons means physical visits to a shopping site. The place most repeatedly visited is either the supermarket or the shopping mall. In fact, going shopping is a major source of relaxation as well as a household chore according to Dholakia (1999). Oakley (1974) asserts that shopping is one of the activities with the most positive attribute of being able to talk to others while doing work. Shopping is widely regarded as a major leisure-time activity Reid and Brown (1996). Cullen (1990) emphasized that, shopping is second only to TV watching in the pantheon of British leisure. Others such as Bloch et al (1992) and Macalister (1992) have also generally and similarly supported that with statistical data. Shopping may or may not be a leisure or recreational activity Howard (2007). Theories of recreation and its meaning are numerous and often times they come with a moral factor. Bronowski (in Howard, 2007) for instance believes that, leisure brings a promise that: . . . â€Å"A deep sense of appreciation envelopes us and lifts us to a higher plane, where we discover that there is peace and beauty and joy in the world. And that may carry over into increasing appreciation of life itself†. Shopping motivation may be due to buyer leisure and an important factor to this can be attributed to be attitude to time by diverse consumers on special occasions. This assertion has had some exploring work on them (Davies, 1994; Whysall, 1991, Howard, 2007). There are a lot of scholars who have pointed out that, there is a nascent sense of time pressure on consumers/customers and these tend to be more affluent than the normal citizenry (Lewis and Bridger, 2000 and Howard, 2007). Schiller (1999) make a case that â€Å"mainstream retailing† (consisting of routinely and regularly purchased goods) is increasingly being put under a time squeeze, partly because of longer working hours and higher female participation rates in the labour market, and partly because holidays and other leisure activities are taking an increasing share of consumers’ time and money. Schiller (1999) explain â€Å"leisure shopping† â€Å"as the mirror image of mainstream retailing where the outing is not so much a means to an end as the whole point, and shopping is only part of the experience†. There is evidence of an increasing proportion of people saying that they spend time looking around the shops as a leisure activity (Mintel, 2000). Tauber 1972 gave two categories of shopping motives to be role playing and Social experience outside the home. The table below shows nine shopping motives which have been grouped under two main categories. Table I Shopping Motivation Source: Tauber (1972) In his research, Dholakia, (1996) empirically determined three motives for going shopping based on factor analysis of 13 statements. These three motives were labeled as: Interactions with family Utilitarian and Shopping as pleasure Shop attractiveness The shop must be attractive to meet the expectation of the target customer. Shop attractiveness may come as a result interplay of multiple of factors. A customer may find a shop attractive due to its versatility in terms of product assortment and variety, physical evidence, tailor-measured customer service, fast service recovery rate, longetivity, location convenience, one-stop shopping advantage among other things. Howard (2007) asks what she terms as the obvious question of shopping as just what makes shopping a pleasurable or leisure experience. Amongst the work on particular environments and factors have appeared some interesting ideas about browsing (Bloch et al., 1991, 1994; Lombart, 2004, Howard, 2007). Jones (1999) looked at the array of factors involved in entertaining shopping experiences. Jones observed retailer factors (prices, selection, store environment and salespeople) and customer factors (social aspects, tasks, times, product involvement and financial resources) tog ether. There have been a few empirical studies done to analyze the motivational aspects of consumers to explain their attraction to shopping malls (Bodkin and Lord, 1997; Ruiz, 1999; Dennis et al., 2001; Nicholls, et al., 2000, 2002, El-Adly, 2007). Ruiz (1999) puts the starting point of some shoppers’ attractiveness to shops on the motives of purely economic motives; while others are attracted due to emotional motives and other due to multi-purpose shoppers which are the combination of these motives. In Nicholls et al. (2000), he found that Chilean consumers visit malls for fundamental reason of purchasing factors and also he found USA consumers visit to shopping malls is for diverse reasons which largely revolves around entertainment. Wakefield and Baker (1998) found that the mall environment influences the desire to stay and re-patronage intentions to the mall. Bloch et al. (1994) on the other hand in his paper investigated the consequence of shopping mall physical environment on consumers’ emotional states. His research reviewed that malls were viewed by consumers as a place for shopping as the basic reasons; however, entertainment played a role among other things in the view of consumers about the shopping mall. Nicholls et al. (2002) added to entertainment motives when he observed that today’s mall patrons tend to be more leisure driven than shoppers in the early 1990s. Finn Louviere, 1996; and Sit et al., 2003 in their studies have given the indication that, the significance of the shopping centre image is a decisive determinant on consumer patronage decisions. Terblanche (1999) was concerned about the impact of four dimensions on shopping centre patronage. His four dimensions of shopping center patronage included, functional, recreational, socializing, and convenience dimensions. He based on these dimensions to be the perceived profit that consumers enjoy when visiting a super regional shopping centre or a shopping mall. His findings showed that recreation (entertainment) appears to be the major benefit pursued by shoppers that patronize a super regional shopping centre. Bellenger et al., 1977; Bloch et al., 1994; and Roy, 1994 also looked at demographic and psychographic characteristics of mall patrons. Martin and Turley (2004) studied the attitudes of the young segment of shoppers towards malls, and factors arousing utilization. They found that they were more likely to be objectively rather than socially motivated to patronize. In addition to the effect of malls’ internal attributes on patronage, other attributes such as travel components that include comfort, reliability of transport mode, effort, tension, distance, and value were significant in affecting shopping centers’ patronage (Ibrahim, 2002). Segmenting the consumer market of shopping mall Over the last three decades, there has been a substantial amount of research on market segmentation for consumer goods and services El-Adly (2007). As competition in the retail marketplace increases, the need for more precise segmentation tools becomes greater Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). However, segmentation research in retailing was very rare and concentrated on individual stores, not on the mall itself (Frasquet et al., 2001; Ruiz et al., 2004). Demographic variables alone provide a narrow perspective of consumer behaviour and thus market segmentation (Boedeker and Marjanen, 1993). Methods using shopping motivation as the basis for distinguishing between individuals offer a more grounded approach in classifying shoppers, Stone (1954), Tauber (1972), Westbrook and Black (1985) and Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980). Retail market segmentation is necessary and often critical to the development of effective marketing strategies in today’s competitive marketplace Segal and Giacobbe (1994). Segal and Giacobbe (1994) further posit that, the impetus for a market segmentation strategy is basic: customers exhibit heterogeneous needs and purchase patterns, and thus respond differently to different marketing stimuli. El-Adly (2007) suggest that there are two segmentation approaches that have been introduced in the marketing literature, a priori and cluster-based segmentation (also called post-hoc). Priory segmentation has been subject to criticism in that it focuses on the external characteristics of consumers (e.g. sex, age and social class) in describing the differences between segments’ behaviour El-Adly (2007). Harrison, (1995) asserts that, these external characteristics are not necessary determinants of buying behaviour. Thus, it is found that, just a few researchers have used this approach in shopping centre segmentation Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). Lee et al. (2005) as an instance studied shopping centre factors that have an influence on shopping enjoyment of male segment. They found that â€Å"shopping-centre features†, â€Å"ancillary facilities†, â€Å"value-added features† and â€Å"special events† are momentous in shaping male shoppersâ€℠¢ pleasure. Dennis et al. (2001) in a part of their study used different subsets of a priori segmentation pairs: male/female, higher/lower socio-economic groups, higher/lower household income, older/younger and auto/public transport. Dennis et al. (2001) however, the finally based their study on post-hoc segmentation. â€Å"Service† and â€Å"shops† were identified groups importance of motivation, which were seen as more useful than conventional a priori segmentation roots in modeling spending behaviour among shoppers. Compared with a priori segmentation, the post-hoc or cluster-based approach has obtained much attention in shopping mall segmentation El-Adly (2007). Using this approach, a heterogeneous population is segmented on the basis of homogeneous responses from within the population (Gwin and Lindgren, 1982). In this concern, Finn and Louviere (1990) identified shopper segments based on differences in shopping mall consideration sets and investigated the differences in mall choice parameters for these segments. At the same line, Boedeker (1995) segmented shoppers on the basis of their general choice criteria of a retail outlet, into two groups the â€Å"new type shoppers† who value both the recreational and economic/convenience characteristics of a retail outlet and the â€Å"traditional shoppers† who were much lower in their desire for the recreational aspects. Mall attributes have been used by Reynolds et al. (2002) to segment malls into five segments namely enthusiasts, basi c, apathetic, destination and serious. Sit et al. (2003) used the mall image attributes to segment shoppers into six market segments labeled as the â€Å"serious† shopper, the â€Å"entertainment† shopper, the â€Å"demanding† shopper, the â€Å"convenience† shopper, the â€Å"apathetic† shopper, and the â€Å"service† shopper. Stone (1954) suggested that consumers engage in the shopping process for a variety of reasons which can be identified with one or more of four shopper-orientation profiles, namely economic shoppers, who view shopping as a necessary task; personalising shoppers, who value the social networking integral to shopping; ethical shoppers, who see shopping as an activity influenced by their views as to what is right or wrong, and apathetic shoppers, who dislike the activity. Other researchers have advanced and refined the notion of shopping motivation using the same or similar conceptualisations (Tauber, 1972; Buttle and Coates, 1984). Boedeker (1995) found that shopping profiles can be classified into two main types, new-type shoppers and traditional shoppers. Boedeker (1995) put forward that the main differences between these factions lie in their fondness for the use of leisure time and their experiences while shopping. New type shoppers refer to those consumers who simultaneously value both the recreational and economic/convenience characteristics of a retail outlet Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). They further posit that traditional shoppers tend to enjoy the experience more. Bellenger and Korgaonkar (1980) argue that, for some people, shopping may even be a very enjoyable use of time without the purchase of goods or services. These shoppers can be referred to as the recreational shoppers; they usually embark on non-planned shopping and are more likely to persist to shop even after making a purchase. Convenience shoppers on the other hand, may seek to minimize the time required for shopping Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000). While most studies have considered shopping for any type of product, some previous studies have focused specifically on food shopping behaviour, the product sector of interest here. Cluster analysis has been used to identify market segments who share similar views (Darden and Ashton, 1974; Herrmann and Warland, 1990). Purchase decision process Trout and Rivkin (2000) estimate that there are now more than one million stock-keeping units (SKUs) in America, and that an average supermarket stocks 40,000 SKUs. The complexity of consumer decisions is increasing: in the 1960s a consumer chose between approximately 100 models from four car manufacturers – now there are 260 models from 20 manufacturers (Trout and Rivkin, 2000). Lye et al (2005) in their study have done an in-depth review of both empirical and theoretical studies on consumer decision making. Lye et al (2005) comprehensive analysis of consumer decision is being adopted by this study. They analyzed the works of Kotler, 1972; Schramm, 1971; Howard (1963); Nicosia (1966); Engel et al., 1978; Engel et al. (1968); Farley and Ring, 1970; Lutz and Resek, 1972; Hunt and Pappas, 1972; San Augustine et al., 1977; Hunt and Pappas, 1972; Rau and Samiee, 1981 They posit that the simplest and perhaps earliest theoretical form of consumer decision model was the â€Å"black box† (Kotler et al., 2004, p. 244). Lye et al (2005) explained that, the black box provides a simplified model focused on exogenous variables. The black box model avoided any supposition associated with identifying processes and variables embedded in the minds of consumers. It is essentially a stimulus-response model based on early communication research, including the work of Ivan Pavlov (Kotler, 1972, p. 104). Schramm argues that: . . . most of the communication process is in the â€Å"black box† of the central nervous system, the contents of which we understand only vaguely [. . .] we are therefore dealing with analogies and gross functions [. . .] [not] a true copy of what happens in the black box, a matter of which we cannot now speak with any great confidence (Schramm, 1971, pp. 24-5). The early integrated models of consumer decision-making attempted to unpack the black box to provide an understanding of the internal consumer decision process for marketing purposes Lye et al (2005). Howard (1963) presented an integrative model of buyer behaviour that was modified and became the well-known Howard and Sheth model (1969). Nicosia (1966) published an influential model that used a diagram and equations to explain the decision process. However, a lack of empirical support or subsequent modifications (Engel et al., 1978) resulted in Nicosia’s model disappearing from marketing texts. The Engel et al. (1968) buyer behaviour model survives today, albeit in a modified form. Although other models have been published, these early models were ground-breaking: they evolved and two of the three have survived for over 30 years Lye et al (2005). These integrated buyer behaviour models comes with some criticisms, and empirical testing has proved problematic (Farley and Ring, 1970; Lutz and Resek, 1972; Hunt and Pappas, 1972). However, support for parts of the models has been published (e.g. San Augustine et al., 1977). The greatest empirical challenges have been creating a clear definition of the model boundaries, identifying the relationship between the variables and determining the best proxies by which the variables can be operationalized (Hunt and Pappas, 1972; Rau and Samiee, 1981). The purpose of the early consumer decision models was to illustrate conceptually an integrated decision model rather than develop a precise, comprehensive research roadmap. The stated purpose of the Howard-Sheth model was the â€Å"description, application, and assessment of those elements of the theory of human behaviour which they believe to be essential in understanding the range of activities that they call ‘buying’† (Rau and Samiee, 1981, p. 307). Our current powerful analytical techniques may allow us to test these â€Å"holistic† early models, but should we do so? Should we impose 35 years of empirical research on these foundational conceptual models and expect empirical validity, when their stated purpose was a conceptual description? Lye et al (2005) asked what they call the fundamental question of whether the existing decision models reflect the reality of current decision making. They answered both in the affirmative and in the negative citing that, in the affirmative, decision models have been found to reflect decision-making within the context of a single decision that is under examination within the empirical research. In the negative they cited lack of generalization across decision contexts. The psychology world of the decision maker is seen to be influenced by a set of expectations that are in turn a function of the background of dependent on product and company specific factors as well as on the process of joint decision making. Howard and Sheth also called attention to the critical factors in organizational buying. Consumer Decision theory Consumer decision theory has been developed simultaneously in the psychology, organizational behaviour and marketing disciplines, with each trying to understand the decision-making of individuals, albeit for different purposes and from different perspectives Lye et al (2005). There are three main sets of groupings of consumer decision theory; they are; (1) Normative decision theory (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947; Savage, 1954). The normative decision theory gives a prescription of how the person making the decision should behave to obtain maximum utility (Edwards, 1954; Simon, 1955; Fischhoff et al., 1983; Beach, 1998). The expected utility theory (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947) and subjective expected utility theory (Savage, 1954) are examples of the normative decision theory. Fischer et al., (2000) asserts that â€Å"the normative decision theory permits decision makers to be uncertain about the occurrence of events in the external environment, but assume that decision makers know their own preferences with certainty†. (2) Simon (1955) has challenged the normative decision theory. He argued that the decision maker has only bounded rationality (March, 1978) and is seeking to â€Å"satisfice†, not maximize. Based on that, the behavioural decision theory has been formed (Payne et al., 1988, 1993). Payne et al in both of researches has found that consumers are adaptive decision makers and their preferences are highly dependent on person-, context-, and task-specific factors (Tversky, 1969; Lichtenstein and Slovic, 1971; Simonson, 1989; Slovic, 1995; Luce et al., 1997; Luce, 1998; Swait and Adamowicz, 2001). This constructive view of decision-making differentiates between behavioural and normative decision theory (Payne et al., 1992). In reality, not all decision makers have well-established preferences. Hence researchers argued that consumer preference uncertainty leads to contingent use of decision strategies (Payne, 1976, 1982; Christensen-Szalanski, 1978; Payne et al., 1995) and contingent we ighting of attribute importance (Tversky et al., 1988; Fischer et al., 2000) by consumers. Behavioural decision research has identified many decision strategies. â€Å"Satisficing† (Simon, 1955) is arguably the most well known behavioural strategy. (3) The third theory is the naturalistic decision theory (Klein et al., 1993). This has evolved out of the principle that decision behaviour should be observed in its natural settings and decision models be developed from the observed real-life decision behaviour (Beach, 1998). Naturalistic decision theory approaches decision making from both a process and outcome perspective Lye et al (2005). Lye et al (2005) posits that, the naturalistic theory begins with a â€Å"situation assessment† and offers multiple paths to a purchase decision depending on the consumer’s assessment of that decision situation. Each decision theory category has developed in response to a need to understand the consumer decision process within the â€Å"black box†, with many different decision strategies providing insight into how consumers make decisions Lye et al (2005). Consumer Decision Strategies Consumers in making purchase decisions go through processes which will eventually will them to the choice of a decision alternative (Svenson, 1979, Lye et al., 2005). The strategies that consumers go through can be categorized by using two factors which are the compensatory versus non-compensatory comparisons; and alternative-based versus attribute-based (Bettman et al., 1998) comparisons. Lye et al., (2005) have tabulated the comparative summary of normative and behavioural decision theories which I present in table I below. Table I: Classification of decision strategies Compensatory Non-compensatory Alternative Additive models Equal weighting models Weighted adding Conjunctive Equal weight Satisficing Disjunctive Attribute Additive difference models Differential weighting models Majority of confirming dimensions Lexographic Elimination by aspects Lye et al., 2005 All normative decision strategies fall within the â€Å"additive† group, reflecting a process of analyzing each option in detail. Compensatory strategies require consumers to make a trade-off between differing values on multiple attributes (Stevenson and Naylor, 1990). Compensatory strategies require extensive information processing because substantial detail is gathered to analyze the trade-offs Lye et al (2005). Non-compensatory strategies do not involve trade-off – rather, they focus on whether or not an attribute meets a predetermined cut-off level (Stevenson and Naylor, 1990). Alternative-based processing refers to a consumer selecting a product/brand and examining all of its attributes before considering the next product (or alternative) Lye et al (2005). The consumer as an adaptive decision maker and does not have a master list of preferences, creating challenges when they choose in an unfamiliar environment Lye et al., (2005). Payne et al. (1993), proposing an accuracy-effort framework, found that consumers are adaptive decision makers. No single strategy is the more efficient across all decision environments (Payne et al., 1995), and therefore consumers constantly adjust their behaviour and their decision strategy in a way that represents reasonable accuracy-effort trade-offs (March, 1978; Payne et al., 1990). Bettman et al. (1998) have proposed an extension of the accuracy-effort framework. They made a case that, in addition to maximizing decision accuracy and minimizing cognitive effort, consumers would also want to minimize negative emotion and maximize ease of justification for the purchase made; i.e. a combination of four meta-goals contributes to consumers’ contingent decision behaviour. Empirical research has revealed that consumers use a decision strategy based on task complexity (Payne, 1976; Olshavsky, 1979), cognitions (Pennington and Hastie, 1986, 1988; Shanteau, 1988; Hammond, 1990) and â€Å"feelings† or emotion (Garbarino and Edell, 1997; Luce et al., 1997). Research reveals the consumer may be an adaptive decision maker, utilizing different strategies in purchase decisions Lye et al., (2005). Buyer Behaviour Rational buyer behavior is based on the decision process, which involves the set of rules that the buyer employs to match his motives and his means of satisfying those motives (Howard and Sheth, 1969). Different studies have shown that consumers showing differences in their characteristics have different needs and wants, so the variation becomes observable in the decisions they take during buying a product (Zeithaml, 198; Zeithaml, 1988; Stanton et al., 1994). In view of that, a number of buyer behaviour models have been developed and discussed in the literature. I will therefore at this point give the state of affairs in the marketing and economics literature concerning behaviour models. Buyer behaviour models The buyer behaviour models on the present day’s literature are extensive and divergent in their methodology and usefulness. Nicosia (1968) and Engel et al. (1978) are among the very ones that are mostly used by researchers and in an attempt to arrive at a more purposeful model, there has been modification and improvement since they were introduced. The foundations of current consumer decision theory were laid in the 1960s with the Nicosia (1968), Engel et al. (1968) and Howard and Sheth (1969) integrated models of consumer decision making. Despite increasing purchase complexity, two of these models have been remarkably resilient and have remained as the basis for current marketing texts and marketing education (for examples, see Kotler et al., 2004; Sheth and Krishnan, 2005). The Nicosia model (1968) has its focus on the processes that proceeds purchases and followed by the act; and not necessarily on the act of purchasing itself, `The act of purchasing is only one component of a complex ongoing process; a process of many interactions amongst many variables Vignali et al, (2001). Vignali et al, (2001) asserts that, the firms attributes lead to a message being sent out to the consumer, who in turn translates the message based on their own attributes and needs. The Nicosia (1968) model assumes that no prior consumer knowledge or experience with the product exists. Researchers such as Loudon, 1988; Chisnall, 1992; and Solomon, 1994 believe that, the search and evaluation processes considered in this model are over-rational Vignali et al, (2001). They alluded to high-cost products as opposed to low-cost products. Therefore, the use of this model to study food buyer behaviour is limited. Howard and Sheth (1968) also developed a model which was more or less a black box model. This model ended up categorizing three variables which determine and influence an individual’s buying decision. These categories are; institutional environmental characteristics; societal environmental characteristics; personal characteristics. This model involves information processing, perception and purchasing processes which are a result of motives Vignali et al, (2001). The next commonly used model is the Engel, Kollat Blackwell model (1978) which originated in 1968. This model in 1973 went through some development and was further revised in 1978. The model por

Career Choice :: essays research papers

Choosing a career is one of the most important decisions a person has to make in their life. It is so important because that is what we will have to do to support ourselves throughout life. Imagine being stuck in a dead end job and having to go to work every morning and dreading it. That is no spending oneÕs time and life is too short to work 35 years and be unhappy with it. If a person likes the job they do then it is not work, because finding satisfaction out of a job can bring great happiness. That information has enabled me to make the decision of choosing my area of study and career in the field of Information Technology. Many things have lead up to my decision to choose a career in Information Systems. It started at my first semester at my local community college. I was enrolled in their graphic design program and most of the classes I was taking consisted of art classes. My first computer class was working in Adobe Illustrator and Photoshop. They are graphic programs that many graphic designerÕs use to make their design work. While working with these programs I was very intrigued by the power of computers and how they work. While going to school at the local community college I soon got a job at CitiMortgage working at the computer help desk. I was learning more about computers and networking which helped lead to my decision to change my degree of study to information systems. Along with my change of interest and working for a company that helps pay for my school I was looking for a better college to attend and that had a program that would fit my needs. I soon became aware of Maryville University and the weekend and evening college program that they offered.

Never To Forget Essay -- essays research papers

Never To Forget-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The meaning of the title â€Å"Never To Forget† is very significant to the story of the Holocaust. The title simply means to forget what we know would not be human. It is very important that we never forget the Five Million Jews that lost their homes, property, freedom, dignity, and finally, their lives. We must always remember what happened to the Jews. Every time someone thinks of saying or doing something to a fellow human being we must remember the Holocaust. We must never forget to insure this will never happen again.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book â€Å"Never To Forget† is Milton Meltzer’s true story of the Holocaust. It tells the story of when over Five Million Jewish peoples were massacred. The book has no characters. It only tells the straightforward account of the Jewish Holocaust. Meltzer writes the story of the Holocaust from an interesting viewpoint. Because he is a young 15 year old American Jew, watching the events of the war from afar, he brings a passion to the delivery of the historical information that makes it more engaging and powerful. The organization of the book into units according to chronology makes it easy to read as a whole, or a reader can use it to research a particular aspect of the Holocaust.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first unit is entitled â€Å"History of Hatred.† It describes the horrible conditions Jews had to endure prior to Hitler’s Holocaust. Meltzer explains how Jews were enslaved by ...

Middle-Class Homelessness in America Essay

Can you imagine yourself standing in line in hope for a cot at a shelter to share with your family, or waiting for a warm meal in a soup kitchen? This is what many middle-class American citizens have succumbed to. Has the American dream been lost, has the middle-class lost its position in the American economy, and has the inequality of income cause the demise of the middle-class? By focusing on the health care reform and record low unemployment rate we overlook the underlying problem; the dwindling middle-class, the backbone of our country. Many studies have been conducted to define middle-class without much success. It has been attempted to relate it to annual income. One study states that yearly incomes between $32,900 and $64,000, another between $50,800 and $122,000, and the U. S. census bureau middle 60% of incomes is the largest range of all lies between$ 20600, and $102,000 as what defines middle-class. Dan Horn notes in the Cincinnati Enquirer â€Å"Psychologist Ken Eisold, a contributor to Psychology today, said, though, that the way people describe their social status has more to do with what’s going on in their heads than their wallets. † Eisold goes on to say that â€Å"it’s really more about identity†. Horn adds that Julie Heath, director of the University of Cincinnati’s Economics Center agrees with Eisold that saying, â€Å"We’re a middle-class family has more than a financial connotations to it, it has a salt-of the earth to it. That’s the bed rock. Essentially this shows that Americans do not base their social status on their income alone, but also on their personal accomplishments and views of where they have come from and where they are going. That being said, the bed rock of the middle-class comes from one of the most common descriptions what living in America is all about; the great American Dream. History tells us that this emotion connected with being middle-class started showing up in the 1830’s. In these times people came to America hoping for the best, and they clung to ideas of how they would make it. They believed that if those ideas and values were kept, that they were middle-class, even if they were not financially. This is how the idea of the Leave it to Beaver life style came into being. In the 1950’s men took white collar jobs while women stayed home and maintained their house and families. They bought homes in the suburbs, nice family cars, and made safe investments. This provided them a sense of stability and many believed this is what the American dream is all about. Today, in pursuit of the dream, to maintain their middle-class status many Americans have higher incomes than their parents did but both parents are working. Yet while doing the best that they that they can possibly do, many are watching their dreams shatter. Erin Currier, director of the Pew Economic Mobility Project, said â€Å"stability is one of the biggest threats to the middle class today. † She goes on to say, â€Å"Though born into middle-class, many fall out by adulthood. † This is due to inflation of basic needs such as health care, day care, college funding, and the rise of the inequality of income. One term often referred to when relating to the middle-class crisis is Income Gap. As defined on the internet by investapedia. om, the income gap is the unequal distribution of household and individual income across the various participants in an economy. A sociology and political science professor at the University of Arizona who studies income inequality and poverty, says that over the past three decades â€Å"is slow income growth compared to general economic growth†¦ a bigger and bigger portion of economic growth has occurred to the wealthiest 1 %, whether the measure is basic wages or total compensation,† says Lane Kenworthy. (CQ researcher 3) There is political risk involved with this shift that is greater than economics and family finances. A large middle class, especially one that is politically active, tends to be a kind of anchor that keeps our country from swinging back and forth. There are typical values that middle-class families acquire and pass on to their children and those values tend to be good for democracy,† states Teresa Sullivan, provost and executive vice president for academic affairs at the University of Michigan, and the co-author of The Fragile Middle Class: Americans in Debt. (CQ Researche r 2) The new millennium looked very hopeful for the war on poverty in America. The federal poverty rate was the lowest it had been since 1974 according to CQ Researcher. The next 4 years even better with Housing prices doubling in many cities and increase in home equity loans that brought the Home-ownership rate up to an all time high of 69 percent. In 2008 we would not only see the sand shift out from the false growth of the economy led by the banks and lending companies but our government bail the banks out with $700 billion rescue bill, They did not however bail out the borrower and many lost their homes. Leading to the current middle class crisis. These issues, the rise of the inequality of income and the shattering of the American dream, have led us to the downfall of the middle class. In more recent years the middle-class are finding themselves not only having a decrease in their income due to layoffs and downsizing, but while not able to maintain their dream are losing their homes due to foreclosures. They are now finding themselves sleeping in their cars, if fortunate to still have one. They are waiting in lines for food and shelter, and bathing in gas station rest rooms, standing on street corners and highway exit’s begging for money or work. I have a personal interest in this research because I consider myself a middleclass American who lived through these years of the housing crisis and recession, I have lost a business, I am dealing with the short sale of my home and a threat of foreclosure, I have suffered through divorce and currently I am a struggling single mother. In conclusion the decline of the middle-class has hit very close to home. Although the hope of the American dream dies a slow death in my own heart, because of the continual economic status and burden of the cost of living rising, many like me are losing hope.